Noninvasive neuromodulation technologies that affect neuronal activity can modulate the pattern of neural activity and cause altered behavior, cognitive states, perception, and motor output without requiring an invasive procedure. For example, transcranial/transdermal electric stimulation (hereinafter “TES”) through scalp electrodes has been used to affect brain function in humans in the form of transcranial alternating current stimulation (hereinafter “tACS”), transcranial direct current stimulation (hereinafter “tDCS”), cranial electrotherapy stimulation (hereinafter “CES”), and transcranial random noise stimulation (hereinafter “tRNS”). Systems and methods for TES have been disclosed (see for example, Capel U.S. Pat. No. 4,646,744; Haimovich et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,540,736; Besio et al. U.S. Pat. No. 8,190,248; Hagedorn and Thompson U.S. Pat. No. 8,239,030; Bikson et al. U.S. Patent Publication 2011/0144716; and Lebedev et al. U.S. Patent Publication 2009/0177243). tDCS systems with numerous electrodes and a high level of configurability have been disclosed (see for example Bikson et al. U.S. Patent Publications 2012/0209346, 2012/0265261, and 2012/0245653), as have portable TES systems for auto-stimulation (Brocke U.S. Pat. No. 8,554,324). Other portable systems include U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/639,015, titled “TRANSDERMAL ELECTRICAL STIMULATION DEVICES FOR MODIFYING OR INDUCING COGNITIVE STATE”, filed Mar. 4, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/320,461, titled “TRANSDERMAL ELECTRICAL STIMULATION DEVICES FOR MODIFYING OR INDUCING COGNITIVE STATE,” filed on Jun. 30, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,002,458, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/091,121, titled “WEARABLE TRANSDERMAL ELECTRICAL STIMULATION DEVICES AND METHODS OF USING THEM”, filed on Nov. 26, 2013.
Typically, TES has been used therapeutically in various clinical applications, including treatment of pain, depression, epilepsy, and tinnitus. In at least some cases of TES therapeutic use, more data concerning the efficacy of TES in treatment is needed. Despite the research to date on TES neuromodulation, existing systems and methods for TES are lacking in at least some cases regarding the design and use of effective TES waveforms. Available systems are limited regarding the design and delivery of TES waveforms. Moreover, available systems do not permit the user to modulate a predetermined/preconfigured electrical stimulation protocol.
For example, U.S. Pat. No. 8,554,324 to Brocke discloses a mobile system for TES auto-stimulation by a user. Brocke further describes an embodiment wherein a wired or wireless remote control is used to control an electrical stimulation generator, as well as the use of smartphones, cellular telephones, or PDAs as a remote control. However, the systems and methods described by Brocke are lacking in at least some instances for defining, acquiring, and/or delivering effective TES waveforms to a user.
Unfortunately, the majority of the devices, including wearable devices, described to date must be positioned on one more likely two body locations, often including the face and head, which can be uncomfortable and visually unappealing to many consumers. Further, the stimulator electronics interfaces for such devices may be cumbersome, and the small size may limit the power and battery life. Even so-called self-contained devices may project from the body (including the face) making them uncomfortable, and may be easily disrupted.
In addition, the stimulation parameters (e.g., waveforms described to date have proven to be difficult to generalize across users; stimulation parameters that are effective for one set of users may be ineffective and/or uncomfortable (particularly when applied to the head and face) for other users.
Finally, most electrodes for TES (and TENS, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation) systems require single-use electrodes applied to the skin (or scalp) by an adhesive. Such electrodes may be reused for a limited number of uses, however they are difficult or impossible to clean, and may dry out, interfering with their ability to reliable make electrical contact with the skin.
It would be beneficial to provide apparatuses for effective neuromodulation (e.g., to affect mood and/or mental state) of a wide number of users that may be worn discretely and comfortably. In particular, such apparatuses (e.g., systems and devices) may also be easily operated and attached to the user, without disrupting the user's hair, skin, glasses, etc. It would also be beneficial to provide electrodes, and in particular electrodes for TES apparatuses, that may be re-used, cleaned and/or rewetted. Described herein are methods and apparatuses that may address these needs.